Category: History

The Queen Of Egypt Cleopatra

Cleopatra was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, reigning from 51 BC until her death in 30 BC. Known for her intelligence, political acumen, and dramatic alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, Cleopatra’s reign marked a significant period of Egyptian history and its complex relationship with Rome. Her life and legacy continue to captivate imaginations and influence popular culture.

Early Life And Ascension To The Throne Of Cleopatra:

Cleopatra VII was born in 69 BC to Ptolemy XII Auletes and his wife Cleopatra V. She was part of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which ruled Egypt following the death of Alexander the Great. Cleopatra’s early life was shaped by the political and cultural environment of the Hellenistic world, with her family being of Macedonian Greek origin but ruling over an Egyptian population.

In 51 BC, after the death of her father, Cleopatra ascended to the throne at the age of 18, co-ruling with her 10-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII. The early years of her reign were marked by political instability and challenges, as Cleopatra faced opposition from court factions and struggled to consolidate her power. Her initial co-rule with Ptolemy XIII eventually led to a power struggle, during which Cleopatra was briefly driven out of Alexandria.

Her Reign As Queen Of Egypt:

Her strategic alliances and efforts to restore Egypt’s power. After initially struggling against her brother Ptolemy XIII, she secured her position with Julius Caesar’s support and later aligned with Mark Antony. Their relationship, both romantic and political, aimed to strengthen Egypt’s influence but led to conflict with Rome.

Relation Of Cleopatra With Julius Caesar And Mark Antony:

Julius Caesar: Cleopatra’s relationship with Julius Caesar began in 48 BC when he visited Alexandria. At the time, Cleopatra was embroiled in a power struggle with her brother Ptolemy XIII. Caesar’s support helped her regain the throne, and they became romantically involved. Cleopatra’s alliance with Caesar strengthened her position, and they had a son, Caesarion (Ptolemy XV). Caesar’s influence was instrumental in consolidating her rule, but his assassination in 44 BC left Cleopatra in a precarious position.

Mark Antony: After Caesar’s death, Cleopatra aligned with Mark Antony, who was one of Caesar’s key supporters. Their alliance, formed around 41 BC, was both political and romantic. Cleopatra and Antony’s relationship produced three children and aimed to strengthen Egypt’s position against Rome. However, their partnership antagonized Octavian (later Augustus), leading to political and military conflicts. The alliance culminated in the famous Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Antony and Cleopatra’s forces were defeated. The loss led to their eventual suicides and the annexation of Egypt by Rome.

The Battle Of Actium And Cleopatra Downfall :

The Battle of Actium, fought on September 2, 31 BC, was a decisive naval confrontation between the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII, and those of Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus. Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet, positioned off the coast of Actium in Greece, faced Octavian’s more formidable navy led by Agrippa. The battle resulted in a crushing defeat for Antony and Cleopatra, with their forces being decisively routed.

The defeat at Actium marked the beginning of the end for Cleopatra. Following the loss, she and Antony retreated to Alexandria, where their political and military position rapidly deteriorated. In 30 BC, Octavian’s forces invaded Egypt, leading to the fall of Alexandria. Facing inevitable capture, Cleopatra and Antony both chose suicide. Cleopatra’s death marked the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty and Egypt’s transition from an independent kingdom to a Roman province, sealing her legacy as a dramatic and pivotal figure in ancient history.

Cleopatra Death:

Cleopatra VII’s death occurred on August 10, 30 BC, following the defeat of her forces and the fall of Alexandria to Octavian’s troops. Facing imminent capture and a bleak future, Cleopatra chose to end her life rather than be paraded in a Roman triumph. The traditional account suggests that she committed suicide by allowing a venomous asp (a type of snake) to bite her.

In the aftermath of her death, Octavian (later Augustus) ensured that Cleopatra’s son, Caesarion, was also killed, and Egypt was annexed into the Roman Empire, marking the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Cleopatra’s dramatic end solidified her place in history as a tragic and powerful figure whose life and reign continue to captivate and inspire.

Cleopatra Image In History And Popular Culture:

Historical Image: Historically, Cleopatra is remembered as a shrewd and ambitious ruler who sought to restore Egypt’s former glory and assert its independence amid the expanding power of Rome. Her alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony were pivotal in her reign, and her dramatic end, marked by her suicide, has cemented her legacy as a tragic heroine. She is often viewed as a powerful female leader who used her charm and political acumen to navigate the treacherous waters of Roman politics.

Popular Culture: Cleopatra’s image in popular culture is a blend of fact, myth, and artistic interpretation. She has been portrayed in various forms of media, including literature, theater, and film. Shakespeare’s play Antony and Cleopatra and films like Cleopatra (1963), starring Elizabeth Taylor, and Cleopatra (1999), featuring Leonor Varela, have shaped her portrayal as a figure of immense beauty and charisma. Modern depictions often emphasize her exoticism and romantic entanglements, sometimes overshadowing her political and intellectual achievements. Despite variations in portrayal, Cleopatra remains an iconic symbol of power, allure, and drama.

 Under rule of Etruscan kings, Rome grew in size and importance.
 By end of 6th Century, Rome was the richest and largest city in Italy.
 Romans wanted independence, so in 509 B.C. drove out Etruscans and established republic.
The Rising Power of Rome :

 Most of the roman art was copied from the Greeks
 It can be said that the Romans became the heirs of Greek art although they also made important contributions of their own, especially in the development of architecture.
The Roman Republic :
 Surrounded by enemies, Romans forced to fight for survival.
 As Rome defended itself, increased republic size to encompass all of Italy.
 After defeating their chief rival Carthage, Rome gained Sicily and became an powerful empire.
 At its height of power, Rome controlled lands from Britain to the Mesopotamia.
Greek Influence :
 Much of Roman art was copied from the Greeks.
 From early on, affluent Romans admired all types of Greek art.
 Large amounts of Greek art was brought to Rome, including some Greek artists.
 Romans considered heirs of Greek art, though they made their own contributions, especially in architecture.

Roman Sculpture and Painting:
 In sculpture and painting, Roman artwork heavily reflects earlier influence of Greek artists.
 Since Rome’s beginning, lifelike sculptures have been heavily desired.
 At the time, wax masks were used during funerals and to honor the dead.
 However, a more durable building material was needed, as wax did not last long.
 So, marble and stone became widely used, and artists who worked with these became highly valued.
Portrait Sculpture :
 Lifelike portrait sculptures can be traced back to the earliest period of Rome’s history.
 Wax masks of deceased family members were made to be carried in funeral processions.

Man of the Republic
 Roman portraits create a feeling of looking at a real person, perhaps someone that
may even look familiar.
 All Roman portrait sculptures depict real people.
 These sculpture use wrinkles and imperfections to express the character of
the subject.
Differences Between Greek and Roman Sculpture :
 Many Roman sculptors came from Greece.
 These artists worked in the altered traditional Greek style to fit Roman standards.
 Greeks preferred idealistic portraits, where Romans preferred realistic portraits.
 Romans wanted realism because most of their portraits were intended for private display.
Mural Paintings:

 Many of the mural paintings painted within homes, were of landscapes and
pictures of buildings that suggested a world that lay beyond the walls of the room.
Subjects of Mural Paintings :
 Mural- A large painted directly on the wall

Paintings of outdoor areas recreated onto the wall as if it was really there landscapes- a painting, photograph, or other works of art that shows natural scenery)
Pictures of buildings
Paintings of people doing actions ~maiden gathering flowers Mural Paintings
Roman Architecture
 Many examples of Roman architecture still survive today, unlike their paintings and sculptures.
 The Romans designed and built many things to link and glorify their vast empire:
◼ Roads
◼ Harbors (seaports, ships discharged for Cargo)
◼ Aqueducts (The Romans constructed aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns)
◼ Sewer Systems
◼ Buildings for leisure and business
 Romans wanted to become first great builders of the world. Architecture
 Temples
◼ Were used by Romans to satisfy their own needs and tastes
 Maison Carree: Nimes, France
◼ Columns do not surround the structure, instead only used for the Portico: a structure consisting of a roof supported by columns or piers, usually attached to a building as a porch.
◼ Along the sides and back half-columns are attached to create a decorative pattern

Architecture :
 Temple complex in Palestrina.
◼ The route to this temple is called the Appian Way and is lined with the grand villas and tombs of wealthy Roman citizens.
◼ The temple became home of the famous oracle (Fortuna- the goddess of good fortune).

Design of the Temple Complex :

 The Temple of Fortuna Primigenia was part of a large complex which had arches, terraces,
and more.
 Arches were used to span openings, and barrel vaults to roof large spaces.
◼ Barrel Vault- A series of round arches from front to back that form a tunnel.
 However, because of the weight of the ceilings, the walls remained windowless. Roman Aqueducts
◼ Aqueduct- A system that carried water from mountain streams into cities by using gravitational flow.
 These were designed for efficient transportation of water, using a series of arches, and also
happened to be attractive.
 Constructed of granite blocks laid without mortar (a mixture of sand, water, and cement ), its sharp angles broke the force of the water.
 Eleven were built in Rome, and could range from 10-60 miles in length.
◼ Carried around 270 million gallons of water a day.

Innovations Architecture :
 Baths- vast enclosed structures that
contained libraries, lecture rooms, gymnasiums, shops, restaurants, and pleasant walkways
 Keystone- top stone of the arch. Innovations in Structure
 The round arch improved on the structurally weaker post and lintel system.
 The lintel, if made of stone and expanded over a large space would break.
 An arch is made of cut bricks or stones held together by a keystone.
◼ Keystone- Top stone of an arch.
 However, a large arch would tend to collapse on itself, so smaller series of arches were instead.
Roman Buildings and Monuments :
 Roman Emperors constantly buildings and rebuilding the cities of their empire.
◼ Emperor Augustus- Claimed he found Rome a city of brick and stone and left it a city of
marble.
 As often as possible, bath, amphitheaters, and other monuments were built for the
enjoyment of the public.
 Emperors did this to maintain their popularity.
Design of the Baths
 Every large Roman city contained baths.
 Each contained similar features, included
series of progressively cooler pools of
water:
◼ The Calidarium- First and contained hot water
◼ The Tepidarium- Second and was a warm bath
◼ The Frigidarium- Last and had cool water
 These different rooms were maintained by slave tended furnaces underneath the
building.

The Baths of Caracalla :

 Built in the 3rd Century A.D. by emperor Caracalla, it is one of the most famous baths ever.
 Its sprawled over 30 acres, with a massive bathhouse and a central hall that was 180
feet long and 77 feet wide.
 This hall was spanned by concrete groin vaults.
◼ Groin Vault- A vault that is formed when two
barrel vaults meet right angles.
 The use of the groin vaults allowed for
buildings to cover larger areas and windows
to be placed in the now unencumbered
walls.
Innovations Architecture :
 Groin vault- two barrel vaults meet at
right angles
 Barrel Vault- a series of round arches
from front to back that form a tunnel
The Baths of Caracalla :
 One of the most famous baths
◼ 30 acres and had a bathhouse that measured 750 feet by 380 feet.
 A huge central hall over 180 feet long and 77 feet wide was spanned with concrete groin vaults.
The Colosseum (a large Theatre, Cinema, or Stadium)

 Large arena, Covers 6 acres and forms a complete oval 615 feet by 510 feet.
 Over the centuries people carried off large masses of the stone to create new buildings until Pope Benedict XIV put a stop to it
Buildings for Sports Events :
 Chariot races were by far Romans favorite spectator sport.
 Up to 150,000 Romans would gather at Circus Maximus to witness sporting events.
 Eventually, 64 days of the year were devoted to chariot races.
The Colosseum’s interior
 80 arched openings enabled spectators to enter and leave
 The “Door of Life” was reserved for victorious gladiators and the slain gladiators were carried through the “Door of Death”
Greek Influences on the Colosseum
 Exterior- four stories, constructed of stone, brick, and concrete
 Top level- Corinthian pilasters (Flat, rectangular columns attached to a wall)
 Between pilasters; small holes
 Holes places in holes to support canvassing that protect spectators rain or shine

The Colosseum

 Chariot races, armed contests, gladiator contests
◼ 5,000 gladiators fought to death and 11,000 animals were killed in a day!!
Innovations in Material: Concrete
 The building material that was first used by the Romans and allowed for stability
and strength in large buildings
 With the advent of concrete, the Romans had a versatile material that was used in the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia.
 Rome was first civilization to use concrete to its best capacity.
 Concrete and the arch allowed Romans to build on a much larger scale.
Public Buildings and Structures
The Pantheon :
◼ Designed as a temple to all the roman
gods

Illuminating the Pantheon’s Interior :
 Though there are no interior windows, the Pantheon is still well light.
 A 30 foot round opening in the dome provides the only source of light.
 The light is sharp and bright, and also allows for the sky to be seen.
 A raised floor and drainage system are used to combat any rainfall.
 Oculus: Latin for “eye”/ opening in the ceiling of the pantheon
 Niches

recesses in the wall
 Coffers: Indented panels

Public Buildings and Structures
 Basilicas
◼ Spacious rectangular building
◼ Designed as a court of law and public meeting hall
◼ Served as models for generations of Christian church builders Plan of Basilicas=
 Inside, rows of slender columns divided the space into a nave and two narrower sides.
◼ Nave- A long, wide center aisle.
 Had a higher roof at the center and therefore could add windows.
 Had a side entrance, wooden roofs, and one area called an apse.
◼ Apse- Semicircular area at the end of the nave.
◼ Transept- an aisle that cuts directly across the nave and the side isles in a basilica and forms a cross shaped floor plan Basilica church
Public Buildings and Structures :

 Triumphal Arches: heavily decorated arch
 After an important victory the general and his troops would pass under the arch
 The Arch of Constantine was the largest and most elaborate of the arches
The Arch of Constantine :

 Largest and most elaborate Triumphal Arch.
 Decorated with sculptures from other monuments of earlier emperors.
 As the monument was dedicated to Constantine, the transferred images had to be altered to resemble Constantine.

Declining Power :

The Declining Power of Rome ;
 Rome’s power began to decline when the capital was shifted to the city of Byzantium, in the Eastern Roman Empire.
 In 330 A.D., the emperor Constantine I renamed the city Constantinople, and this marked the beginning of the Byzantine Empire.
 The Western Roman Empire continued to decline, and in 410 A.D., Rome was conquered by the Visigoths.
 The Western Roman Empire had ceased to exist by the 5th Century A.D.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION:

HISTORY :

also known as Harrapan Civilization ,

Indus valley civilization, the earliest known Urban culture of Indian Subcontinent. The Indus Valley Civilization developed from Circa 3000/2600 BCE to 1500 BCE in the Northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent centered on the Indus river Valley. Some significant feature are giving below to understand the nature and the pattern of Indus Valley people and time.

HOMES :

Houses were flat one or two stories high made of baked brick, with flat roofs. Each was built around a courtyard, with windows overlooking around the courtyard.
Outside walls had no windows Each home had its own private well and bathroom. Clay pipes led from bathrooms to sewers located under the streets. Sewers drained into nearly rivers and streams.

CLOTHS of indus civilization :

Men and women dressed in colorful robes. Women wore jewelry of gold and precious stone, and even wore lipstick. Among the treasures found was a statue of a women wearing a bracelet.

ENTERTAINMENT :
A beautiful small bronze statue of a dancer was found, which tells us that they enjoyed dance and had great skill working with metals. Scientists have found the remains of a large central pool, with steps leading down at both ends. This could have been a public swimming pool or perhaps have been used for pool or perhaps have been used for religious ceremonies.

FOOD :
They were good farmers. They grew barley, peas, melons, wheat and dates.
Fish were caught in the river with fish hooks. Crops were grown and the harvest stored centrally, for in the town to enjoy.

TOYS :

Some of the toys found were small carts, whistles, shaped like birds, and toys monkeys which could slide down a string.

ART :
They have had marvelous craftsmen, skilled in pottery, weaving and metal working. Pottery that has been found is of very high quality, with unusually beautiful designs. They used to make small statues; scientists have found no large statues.

TRANSPORTATION OF INDUS VALLEY :

They used camels, oxen and elephants to travel over land. They had carts with wooden wheels. They used ships to sail around the Arabian Sea.

ANCIENT INDUS VALLEY SITES HARAPA:
Harappa was a city in the Indus valley civilization that flourished around 2,500Bc, in the western part of south Asia. It lies in Punjab Province Pakistan, on an old bed of the river Ravi. The Indus valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. An abundance of terracotta figurines . Harappa provided the first clues in the 19th century to the ancient Indus valley- often abbreviated as Harappan
civilization.

MOHENJODARO :

It is probably the best known Indus Valley site. Mohenjo –Daro is in Sindh, Pakistan, next to the Indus River, not far from the very early human flint mining quarries at Rohri. Here the great bath, uniform buildings and weights, hidden drains and other hallmarks of the civilization were discovered in the 1920’s. Due to a rising water table, most of the site remains unexcavated, and its earliest levels have not been reached. Other sites are: DHOLAVIRA, LOTHAL, RAKHIGARHI, GOLA DHORO, GANERIWALA, DAIMABAD, CHANDARHO, SUTKAGEN, All these sites flourished for various periods between 3500 and 1700 BC.

FIGURINE :
(Small Statue/Small Sculpture)
The anthropomorphic and animal terracotta figurines from Harappa and other Indus civilization sited offer a rich reflection of some of the Harappan ideas about representing life in the Bronze Age. Several styles of carts as well as wheels made of terracotta have been found at Harappa.
Another style of early Harappan female figurine holds a round object, possibly a vessel, with both hands at the waist above a flaring lower body which ends in a (broken) forward- extending bas. The hair is bound at the back of the head into a tiered hairstyle.
Detail such as a necklace with long pendants, bangles, and grid-like lines possilbilly
depicting textile designs are painted in black. Approximately -dimensions (WxHxD) 3.7
x7.9x 2.4.

POTTERY :
what kind of pottery they made ?

Collection of burial pottery without any painted designs. These vassals come from one of the later burials towards the end of the Harappan period, possibly dating to 1900 BC. Tall jar with concave neck and flaring rim: The rounded base was originally supported in a ring stand. The black painted geometric designs are arranged in panels with a red slip as background.

After initial firing, the entire painted design was obliterated with a red slip and fired again at a low temperature that turned the exterior layer of the slip red through oxidation, but the inner layer remained gray. This over slip was not well bonded to the previously slipped
surface and was partially eroded when first discovered.

TYPES OF POTTERY Art :

So many types of pottery has been used by the Indus valley people, like, large jars, Dish-on- stands, plated, goblets, cup, vessels, bottles, bowls, shallow plate and deep plates. These were used for cooking and storage purposes.
The largest vessels were used for oil and other alcohol things. Some of them were used for the cosmetic, and other liquid things.

DECORATION ON INDUS VALLEY POTTERY :
Painted pottery with a variety of motifs appeared in many areas of the Indus valley sited.

SLIP DECORATION:
The outer or exterior surface of pottery mostly decorated with slips, that mainly reddish slip and brownish slip has been provided. Sometimes the slip applied on the throat area of the interior side the
pottery.

BANDS WITH BLACK LINES :
Sometimes on the slip the bands are provided and further enclosing with thin black lines. While in some examples the reddish band or brownish bands are provided on the plain pottery.

GROOVED WARE :
The relief pointed lines are made on the exterior of the plain pottery, in very few examples the shreds are treated with brownish or reddish slips.

INCISED POTTERY :
With pointed tool, the engraved lines are marked during turning of wheel by the potter are applied on the exterior surface that mainly in plain shreds examples can be observed.

PERFORATED POTTERY :
Sometimes the fabric of the pottery had been perforated during its initial stages that still pots were in the stage of its wetness. Such types of pottery also almost are found plain without decoration treatment.

HUMAN FIGURAL REPRESENTATION :
On the Indus valley pottery the representation of human has been shown in stylized form while in most case it represented in just outlines and in solid outlines. The facial features are not clear nor did they execute. The walking pose, and daily routine poses are shown on the surface of the shreds.

FAUNAL (Animals) Execution ;
There are considerable big collections of painted pottery, on the exterior of which animals are drawn in black colors. In the animal’s motifs the present flora of the ancient time has been represented, bull, mostly humped bull with curve horns in profile view has been shown.
Fish also can be observed sometime the fish scales have been executed on the reddish surface with black color lines. Goat, sheep, cranes, ducks, gazelles, and peacocks are made. Scorpion design in black outline with multi feet in exaggerated from also used.

FLORAL DESIGNS ;
In floral designs the trefoil pattern, trigrams pattern, piple leaf pattern, with hatched design has been shown. Besides the branches with leave just in outlines has been executed. Single leaf pattern, heart shaped leaf pattern with hatching design and solid leaf pattern are shown mostly on the reddish colored pottery. Elongated leaf pattern and solid loop pattern have been done in black color as well on the exterior surface of the shreds.

GEOMETRICAL :
In geometrical designs a variety has been shown that mostly done on the exterior surface of the red slip pottery. Square in hatched, with net pattern, rectangular with net pattern or simple hatched design are executed. Circles that mostly intersecting-circles are made in black color ion the reddish glossy slip that the typical design of the Indus valley civilization pottery of mature phase. Loops designs with wavy horizontal lines and some time with angular tip of the zig zag design are made.

Solid dots and horizontal solid dots are representing with loops and sometimes inside the loops have been executed on the same reddish slip shred on exterior surface. Triangles in outlines and solid form that representing lozenge design, steps designs, multi-steps designs also represented on the outer surface of the pot.

SYMBOLS :
On the Indus valley shred the symbols are also shown on their pottery. Sun symbol with rays, swastika symbol with solid and outline manner has been shown. The Indus script symbols are also made by the potters on the outer surface.

COLOUR SCHEMES :
On the Indus valley pottery mainly Red color slips has been used. Beside Red color, Brown, dark Brown. Chocolate color, orange, pinkish, black, white & off white, creamy white and blue white colors are
also used.

TECHNIQUES OF THE POTTERY :
Pottery has been made on wheel-made methodology, for the small pots the rapid speed wheels have been used, while in rare cased the handmade pottery is used.